Foundation Design Theory and Practice, CONTENTS:
1 Introduction
1.1 Foundations, Soils and Superstructures
1.2 Classification of Foundations
1.2.1 Shallow Foundation
1.2.2 Deep Foundations
1.3 Selection of Type of Foundation
1.4 General Guidelines for Design
1.5 Modeling, Parameters, Analysis and Design Criteria
1.6 Soil Maps
2 Engineering Properties of Soil
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Basic Soil Relations
2.2.1 Grain Size Distribution
2.2.2 Plasticity and the Atterberg’s Limits
2.3 Soil Classification
2.4 Permeability
2.4.1 Quick Sand Condition and Critical Hydraulic Gradient
2.5 Over Consolidation Ratio
2.6 Relative Density
2.7 Terzaghi’s Effective Stress Principle
2.8 Compaction of Soils
2.9 Consolidation and Compressibility
2.9.1 Compressibility Characteristics and Settlement of Soils
2.9.2 Time Rate of Consolidation
2.10 Shear Strength of Soils
2.10.1 Direct Shear Test
2.10.2 Vane Shear Test
2.10.3 Triaxial Shear Test
2.10.4 Unconfined Compression Test
2.10.5 Correlations
2.10.6 Sensitivity and Thixotropy
2.11 Soil Exploration and Sampling
2.11.1 Purposes of Soil Exploration
2.12 Site Investigation — Boring, Sampling and Testing
2.12.1 Minimum Depth of Bore Holes
2.13 Split Spoon Sampler and Standard Penetration Test
2.14 Cone Penetration Test
2.15 Field Vane Shear Test
2.16 Other In Situ Tests
2.17 Summary
2.18 Examples
Exercise Problems
3 Bearing Capacity, Settlement, Stresses and Lateral Pressures in Soils
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 General and Local Shear Failure of Soils
3.1.2 Punching Shear Failure
3.1.3 Failure Due to Large Settlements
3.1.4 Allowable or Design Soil Pressure
3.2 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations
3.2.1 Prandtl’s Theory for Shallow Foundations
3.2.2 Terzaghi’s Theory for Shallow Foundations
3.2.3 Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Smooth Base
3.2.4 Factors of Safety
3.2.5 General Bearing Capacity Solutions
3.2.6 Effect of Ground Water Table
3.2.7 Other Factors
3.3 Bearing Capacity of Deep Foundations
3.3.1 Types of Deep Foundations
3.3.2 Bearing Capacity
3.4 Correlation of UBC and ASP with SPT Values and CPT Values
3.4.1 SPT Values
3.4.2 Correlation to N Values
3.4.3 CPT Values
3.5 UBC and Probable Settlements Using Field Plate Load Test
3.5.1 Spring Constant from Total Deformation
3.5.2 Settlement
3.5.3 Ultimate Bearing Capacity
3.6 Elastic Stress and Displacement Distribution in Soils
3.7 Settlement Analysis
3.7.1 Immediate Settlement
3.7.2 Settlement Due to Consolidation
3.7.3 Settlement Due to Secondary Consolidation
3.8 Lateral Earth Pressure
3.8.1 Fundamental Relationships Between Lateral Pressure and Backfill Movement
3.8.2 Rankine’s Theory
3.8.3 Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
3.9 Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest
3.10 Other Theories of Lateral Pressure
3.11 Examples
3.11.1 Examples in Bearing Capacity (Sections 3.2 to 3.5)
3.11.2 Examples in Stress Distribution in Soils (Section 3.6)
3.11.3 Examples in Settlement Analysis (Section 3.7)
3.11.4 Examples in Lateral Pressures (Sections 3.8 to 3.10) Exercise Problems
4 Rational Design of Shallow Foundations
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Shallow Foundations
4.3 Conventional Design and Rational Design
4.4 Procedures for the Design of Footings
4.4.1 Depth of Footings
4.4.2 Proportioning the Size of the Footing
4.4.3 Stress on Lower Strata
4.4.4 Settlement of Footings
4.4.5 Design Considerations for Eccentric Loading
4.4.6 Inclined Loads
4.4.7 Footings on Slopes
4.4.8 Uplift of Footings
4.5 Conventional Structural Design of Footings
4.6 Foundations in Difficult Soil Formations
4.6.1 Sites with Possible Soil Erosion
4.6.2 Foundations with Susceptibility of Corrosion
4.6.3 Sites with Water Fluctuation or Near Large-Scale Mining Operations
4.6.4 Foundations in Loose Sand
4.6.5 Foundations on Loess or Other Collapsible Soils
4.6.6 Foundations on Clays or Silts
4.6.7 Foundations on Expansive Soils
4.6.8 Foundations on Garbage Land Fills or Sanitary Landfills
4.7 Modeling Soil Structure Interactions for Rational Design of Foundations
4.7.1 Elastic Foundations
4.7.2 Soil-Structure Interaction Equations
4.7.3 Brief Review of the Foundation Models
4.7.4 Winkler’s Model
4.8 Evaluation of Spring Constant in Winkler’s Soil Model
4.8.1 Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Compression – Plate Load Test
4.8.2 Size of Contact Area
4.8.3 Winkler’s Soil Medium with or without Tension
4.8.4 Sensitivity of Responses on ks
4.8.5 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for Different Plate Sizes and Shapes
4.8.6 Poisson’s Ratio of the Soil Medium
4.8.7 Evaluation of Young’s Modulus
4.8.8 ks for Foundations Subjected to Dynamic Loads
4.9 Soil-Structure Interaction Equations
4.10 Summary
5 Analysis of Footings on Elastic Foundations
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Literature Review
5.2.1 Analytical Solutions
5.2.2 Numerical Methods and Finite Difference Method
5.2.3 Finite Element Method
5.3 Analysis of BEF
5.3.1 General Solution
5.4 Infinite Beams on Elastic Foundations
5.4.1 Semi-Infinite Beams on Elastic Foundations Subjected to P at x = 0
5.5 Finite Beams on Elastic Foundations
5.5.1 MIP for General Loads and Beam Configurations
5.5.2 Effect of External Loads – General Solution of the Nonhomogeneous Equation
5.5.3 Method of Superposition with MIP
5.5.4 General Comments on Exact Solutions of BEF
5.5.5 Approximate Categorization of BEF for Simplification and Idealization of Analysis
5.6 Plates on Elastic Foundations
5.6.1 Analysis of Rectangular PEF
5.6.2 Bending of Rectangular PEF
5.6.3 Circular PEF
5.7 Summary
Exercise Problems
Appendix 5.A Matrix of Influence Functions (Method of Initial Parameters)
6 Numerical and Finite Difference Methods
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Trial Solutions with Undetermined Parameters
6.2.1 Stationary Functional Method
6.2.2 General Comments
6.2.3 Trial Solutions with Undetermined Functions
6.2.4 Observations
6.3 Finite Difference Method
6.3.1 Finite Difference Operators
6.3.2 Application to Engineering Problems
6.3.3 Errors in FD
6.3.4 Improvizations of FDM – Iterative Methods, Relaxation, h2 Extrapolation and so on
6.4 FDM Applications to General BEF Problems
6.4.1 Representation of Derivatives Using Central Differences
6.4.2 Representation of Applied Loads
6.4.3 Equivalent Nodal Loads
6.4.4 Subgrade Reaction and Contact Pressures
6.4.5 FD Analysis for BEF Problems
6.5 Boundary Conditions
6.5.1 Free Ends
6.5.2 Simply Supported Ends
6.5.3 Fixed Ends
6.6 Calculation of Bending Moments
6.6.1 Boundary Nodes
6.6.2 Internal Nodes
6.7 Shear Forces
6.7.1 Boundary Nodes
6.7.2 Internal Nodes
6.8 Vertical Reactions
6.8.1 Supports at Boundary Nodes
6.8.2 Internal Supports
6.9 Simplification for Prismatic Beams
6.9.1 FDO for Prismatic BEF
6.9.2 Free Ends
6.9.3 Simply Supported Ends
6.9.4 Fixed Ends
6.9.5 Solutions of Simultaneous Equations
6.10 FDM for Rectangular Plates on Elastic Foundations
6.10.1 PEF with Free Edges
6.11 FDM for Circular and Annular Plates on Elastic Foundations
6.12 BEF Software Package
6.13 Summary
Exercise Problems
7 Finite Element Method
7.1 General Philosophy
7.2 Finite Element Procedure
7.2.1 Finite Element Deformation Patterns
7.2.2 Transformation of Coordinates
7.3 Formulation of Finite Element Characteristics (Stiffness Analysis)
7.4 Beam Elements
7.4.1 Incorporating Soil Reaction for BEF Analysis
7.5 Plate Elements for Bending Theory
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 Displacement Formulation of the Plate Problem
7.5.3 Continuity of Requirement for Shape Function
7.5.4 Nonconforming Shape Functions
7.5.5 Stiffness and Load Matrices
7.5.6 Stiffness Matrix for Isotropic Plates
7.5.7 Incorporating Soil Reaction for PEF Analysis
7.5.8 Circular, Ring Shaped and Plates of General Shapes
7.5.9 Finite Grid Method and Boundary Element Method
7.5.10 General Comments on FEM
7.6 Summary
7.7 Examples
7.7.1 FEM Analysis of BEF
7.7.2 FEM Analysis of PEF
7.7.3 General FEM Examples of Soil Structure Interaction Exercise Problems
Appendix 7.A Stiffness and Stress Matrices for Plate Elements
7.A.1 Stiffness Matrix
7.A.2 Stress Matrix
7.A.3 Load Matrix
8 Parameters and Criteria for Foundation Design
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Design Considerations
8.3 Codes, Practices and Standards
8.4 Design Soil Pressure
8.5 Gross and Net Values of the Safe Bearing Capacity and Allowable
Soil Pressure
8.6 Presumptive Bearing Capacity
8.6.1 Design Loads and Factors of Safety
8.7 Settlements and Differential Settlements
8.7.1 Total Settlement
8.7.2 Differential Settlement
8.8 Cracks Due to Uneven Settlement
8.9 Suggestions to Reduce Large Differential Settlements
9 Deep Foundations – Piles, Drilled Piers, Caissons and Pile-Raft Systems
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Piles
9.2.1 Timber Piles/Plain Timber Piles
9.2.2 Concrete Piles
9.2.3 Composite Piles
9.2.4 Steel Piles
9.3 Functions of Piles
9.4 Design of Pile Foundations
9.5 Type and Length of Piles
9.6 Pile Load Capacity
9.6.1 Dynamic Pile Driving Formulae and Wave Equation
9.6.2 Static Method
9.6.3 The a Method
9.6.4 The b Method
9.6.5 The l Method
9.6.6 Allowable Pile Capacity
9.6.7 Pile Load Tests
9.6.8 Correlation with SPT and CPT Values
9.7 Lateral Load Capacity of Piles
9.8 Stresses on Lower Strata Due to Pile Foundations
9.9 Settlement Analysis
9.10 Design of Piles and Pile Groups
9.11 Drilled Piers or Drilled Caissons
9.11.1 Construction of Drilled Piers
9.11.2 Other Design Details
9.11.3 Bearing Capacity and Shaft Resistance
9.11.4 Stresses in Lower Strata
9.11.5 Other Design Considerations
9.11.6 Construction Problems
9.12 Non-Drilled Caissons
9.12.1 Types of Caissons
9.12.2 Design Considerations – Bearing Capacity and Shaft Fr
9.12.3 Concrete Seal
9.13 Pile-Raft Systems
9.13.1 Analysis of Pile-Raft Systems
9.13.2 General Observations
9.14 Examples
Exercise Problems
10 Design of Piles and Pile Groups
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Use of Pile Foundations
10.3 Types of Piles and Pile Groups
10.4 Efficiency of Pile Groups
10.5 Analysis and Design of Pile Foundations
10.5.1 Loads and Pile Configuration
10.5.2 Loads
10.5.3 Pile Configuration
10.5.4 Checks Imposed on the Pile Group
10.6 Lateral Capacity of Piles
10.6.1 Single Pile
10.6.2 Additional Considerations
10.6.3 Methods of Analysis
10.6.4 Beam on Elastic Foundation Approach
10.6.5 Short Piles – Brinch Hansen’s Method
10.6.6 Structural Checks
10.7 Pile Group
10.7.1 Methods Available
10.8 Settlement of Piles
10.8.1 Point-Bearing Piles on Bedrock
10.8.2 Point-Bearing Piles in Sand and Gravel
10.8.3 Point-Bearing Piles on Hard Clay
10.8.4 Friction Piles in Sand and Gravel
10.8.5 Friction/Adhesion Piles in Clays
10.8.6 Settlement Under Axial Load – Single Pile
10.8.7 Settlement Under Axial Load – Pile Group
10.8.8 Methods of Computation
10.9 Settlement Under Lateral Load
10.10 Design of Pile Caps
10.11 Uplift
10.12 Batter Piles
10.13 Design of Pile Foundations
10.14 Summary of Assumptions and Guidelines for Design
10.15 Example
10.15.1 Types of Piles
10.15.2 Concrete Data
10.15.3 Soil Data
10.15.4 Loads From the Superstructure
10.15.5 Modulus of Piles About the Axes Passing Through the CG of the Pile Group
10.15.6 Loads
10.15.7 Moments
10.15.8 Combination of Loads and Moments for Maximum
Load on Pile
10.15.9 Combination of Loads and Moments for Minimum
Load on Pile
10.15.10 Maximum Load on Pile Without Wind
10.15.11 Design of Reinforcement in Pile
10.15.12 Pile Cap
10.15.13 Check for Vertical Load Capacity of Pile
10.16 Construction Guidelines
10.16.1 Construction Details
Exercise Problems
11 Machine Foundations
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Design of Foundations in a Dynamic Environment
11.2 Types of Machine Foundations
11.3 General Requirements of Machine Foundations and Design Criteria
11.4 Dynamic Loads
11.5 Physical Modeling and Response Analysis
11.5.1 Dynamic Interaction of Rigid Foundations and Soil Media
11.5.2 Idealization of Foundation Dynamics Problems
11.5.3 Resonant Frequency
11.5.4 Apparent Mass of Soil
11.5.5 Spring Constants and Damping Coefficients
11.5.6 Barkan’s Approach
11.6 Analysis by Lysmer and Richart
11.6.1 Introduction
11.6.2 Other Modes
11.6.3 Analog Models for Dynamic Analysis of Single Piles
11.7 General Analysis of Machine-Foundation-Soil Systems Using Analog Models
11.8 General Equations of Motion
11.8.1 Machine-Block Foundation-Soil System
11.8.2 Machine-Pile Foundation-Soil System
11.8.3 Some Simplifications for MFS
11.9 Methods of Solution
11.9.1 Observations
11.10 General Remarks
11.11 Framed Foundations
Exercise Problems
Appendix 11.A Elements of Vibration Theory
- A.1 Introduction
- A.2 SDF Translational Systems
- A.3 General Solutions
- A.4 Damped Free Vibrations – Viscous Damping
- A.5 Forced Vibrations
- A.6 Multi Degree of Freedom Systems
Appendix 11.B Stiffness and Damping Parameters
- B.1 Introduction
- B.2 Analog Parameters of Lysmer and Richart
- B.3 Other Parameters
- B.4 Parameters of Machine Foundation for Computations
Appendix 11.C General Guidelines for Design and Construction of Machine Foundations
- C.1 Introduction
- C.2 Data for Analysis and Design
- C.3 Guidelines for Design
- C.4 Miscellaneous Guidelines
- C.5 Construction Guidelines
- C.6 Guidelines for Providing Vibration Absorbers
12 Structural Design of Foundations
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Analysis of Foundations
12.3 Structural Design
12.3.1 Bending Moment
12.3.2 Shear Force
12.3.3 Development Length
12.3.4 Deflection and Cracking
12.3.5 Transfer of Load at Base of Column
12.3.6 Tensile Reinforcement
12.4 Isolated Footings
12.4.1 Eccentrically Loaded Footings
12.5 Wall Footings
12.6 Combined Footings
12.7 Strap Footings
12.8 Raft Foundations
12.8.1 Conventional Design of Rafts
12.9 Circular and Annular Footings
12.10 Construction Guidelines for Footings
12.10.1 Relative Depth of Footings
12.10.2 Dewatering
12.11 Construction of Raft Foundations
12.12 Examples of Structural Design
Exercise Problems
Appendix 12.A Details of RC Design
12.A.1 Introduction
12.A.2 Factored Loads
12.A.3 Yield Stress
12.A.4 Maximum Depth of Neutral Axis
12.A.5 Limiting Values of Tension Steel and Moment of Resistance
12.A.6 Maximum and Minimum Tension Reinforcement
12.A.7 Moment of Resistance
12.A.8 Design Tables
12.A.9 Shear Reinforcement
12.A.10 Bond and Development Length
12.A.11 Clear Cover for Reinforcement
12.A.12 Spacing of Reinforcement
12.A.13 Reinforcement Requirements in Beams and Slabs
12.A.14 Reinforcement in Piles
12.A.15 Under-Reamed Piles
12.A.16 Pile Caps
Appendix 12.B Expressions for BM and SF for Circular and Annular Slabs, and Foundations
12.B.1 Introduction
12.B.2 Slab Freely Supported at the Edges and Carrying UDL
12.B.3 Slabs Fixed at Edges and Carrying UDL
12.B.4 Slab Simply Supported at the Edges with Load W Uniformly Distributed Along the Circumference of a Concentric Circle
12.B.5 Slab Simply Supported at Edges, with UDL Inside a Concentric Circle
12.B.6 Slab Simply Supported at Edges, with a Central Hole and Carrying UDL
12.B.7 Slab Simply Supported at the Edges with a Central Hole and Carrying W Distributed Along the Circumference of a Concentric Circle
12.B.8 Application of Expressions to Foundations Appendix 12.C Structural Design of Shallow Foundations
12.C.1 Introduction
12.C.2 Input of Soil Parameters for Structural Design
12.C.3 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for the Analysis
12.C.4 BEF Solutions for Circular and Annular Rafts
12.C.5 Examples of Structural Design
Appendix 12.D Comparative Features of Concrete Codes for Foundation Design
12.D.1 Introduction
12.D.2 Partial Safety Factors and Load Combinations
12.D.3 Steel Details”
12.D.4 Concrete Details
12.D.5 Maximum Depth of Neutral Axis
12.D.6 Limiting Moment of Resistance and Tensile Reinforcement Area
12.D.7 Limiting Tensile Steel in Rectangular Sections
12.D.8 Minimum Tension Reinforcement
12.D.9 Maximum Tension Reinforcement
12.D.10 Shear Reinforcement
12.D.11 Punching Shear
12.D.12 Bond Stress and Development Length
12.D.13 Clear Cover for Reinforcement
12.D.14 Spacing of Reinforcement
12.D.15 Design Examples Using Different Codes
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